Minggu, 25 Maret 2012

MIMPI INDAH



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Sabtu, 24 Maret 2012

SEJARAH JARINGAN KOMPUTER

Sejarah

ini model Distributed Processing
Sejarah jaringan komputer bermula dari lahirnya konsep jaringan komputer pada tahun 1940-an di Amerika yang digagas oleh sebuah proyek pengembangan komputer MODEL I di laboratorium Bell dan group riset Universitas Harvard yang dipimpin profesor Howard Aiken.[3] Pada mulanya proyek tersebut hanyalah ingin memanfaatkan sebuah perangkat komputer yang harus dipakai bersama.[3] Untuk mengerjakan beberapa proses tanpa banyak membuang waktu kosong dibuatlah proses beruntun (Batch Processing), sehingga beberapa program bisa dijalankan dalam sebuah komputer dengan kaidah antrian.[3]
Kemudian ditahun 1950-an ketika jenis komputer mulai berkembang sampai terciptanya super komputer, maka sebuah komputer harus melayani beberapa tempat yang tersedia (terminal), untuk itu ditemukan konsep distribusi proses berdasarkan waktu yang dikenal dengan nama TSS (Time Sharing System).[4] Maka untuk pertama kalinya bentuk jaringan (network) komputer diaplikasikan.[4] Pada sistem TSS beberapa terminal terhubung secara seri ke sebuah komputer atau perangkat lainnya yang terhubung dalam suatu jaringan (host) komputer.[4] Dalam proses TSS mulai terlihat perpaduan teknologi komputer dan teknologi telekomunikasi yang pada awalnya berkembang sendiri-sendiri.[4] Departemen Pertahanan Amerika, U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) memutuskan untuk mengadakan riset yang bertujuan untuk menghubungkan sejumlah komputer sehingga membentuk jaringan organik pada tahun 1969.[5] Program riset ini dikenal dengan nama ARPANET.[5] Pada tahun 1970, sudah lebih dari 10 komputer yang berhasil dihubungkan satu sama lain sehingga mereka bisa saling berkomunikasi dan membentuk sebuah jaringan.[5] Dan pada tahun 1970 itu juga setelah beban pekerjaan bertambah banyak dan harga perangkat komputer besar mulai terasa sangat mahal, maka mulailah digunakan konsep proses distribusi (Distributed Processing).[3] Dalam proses ini beberapa host komputer mengerjakan sebuah pekerjaan besar secara paralel untuk melayani beberapa terminal yang tersambung secara seri disetiap host komputer.[3] Dalam proses distribusi sudah mutlak diperlukan perpaduan yang mendalam antara teknologi komputer dan telekomunikasi, karena selain proses yang harus didistribusikan, semua host komputer wajib melayani terminal-terminalnya dalam satu perintah dari komputer pusat.[3]
Ini adalah Model Time Sharing System (TSS)
Pada tahun 1972, Roy Tomlinson berhasil menyempurnakan program surat elektonik (email) yang dibuatnya setahun yang lalu untuk ARPANET.[5] Program tersebut begitu mudah untuk digunakan, sehingga langsung menjadi populer.[5] Pada tahun yang sama yaitu tahun 1972, ikon at (@) juga diperkenalkan sebagai lambang penting yang menunjukan “at” atau “pada”.[5] Tahun 1973, jaringan komputer ARPANET mulai dikembangkan meluas ke luar Amerika Serikat.[5] Komputer University College di London merupakan komputer pertama yang ada di luar Amerika yang menjadi anggota jaringan Arpanet.[5] Pada tahun yang sama yaitu tahun 1973, dua orang ahli komputer yakni Vinton Cerf dan Bob Kahn mempresentasikan sebuah gagasan yang lebih besar, yang menjadi cikal bakal pemikiran International Network (Internet).[5] Ide ini dipresentasikan untuk pertama kalinya di Universitas Sussex.[5] Hari bersejarah berikutnya adalah tanggal 26 Maret 1976, ketika Ratu Inggris berhasil mengirimkan surat elektronik dari Royal Signals and Radar Establishment di Malvern.[5] Setahun kemudian, sudah lebih dari 100 komputer yang bergabung di ARPANET membentuk sebuah jaringan atau network.[5]
Peta logika dari ARPANET
Tom Truscott, Jim Ellis dan Steve Bellovin, menciptakan newsgroups pertama yang diberi nama USENET (User Network) pada tahun 1979.[6] Tahun 1981, France Telecom menciptakan sesuatu hal yang baru dengan meluncurkan telepon televisi pertama, di mana orang bisa saling menelepon yang juga berhubungan dengan video link.[6]
Seiring dengan bertambahnya komputer yang membentuk jaringan, dibutuhkan sebuah protokol resmi yang dapat diakui dan diterima oleh semua jaringan.[6] Untuk itu, pada tahun 1982 dibentuk sebuah Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) atau lebih dikenal dengan sebutan Internet Protocol (IP) yang kita kenal hingga saat ini.[6] Sementara itu, di Eropa muncul sebuah jaringan serupa yang dikenal dengan Europe Network (EUNET) yang meliputi wilayah Belanda, Inggris, Denmark, dan Swedia.[6] Jaringan EUNET ini menyediakan jasa surat elektronik dan newsgroup USENET.[6]
Untuk menyeragamkan alamat di jaringan komputer yang ada, maka pada tahun 1984 diperkenalkan Sistem Penamaan Domain atau domain name system, yang kini kita kenal dengan DNS.[5] Komputer yang tersambung dengan jaringan yang ada sudah melebihi 1000 komputer lebih.[5] Pada 1987, jumlah komputer yang tersambung ke jaringan melonjak 10 kali lipat menjadi 10000 lebih.[5]
Jaringan komputer terus berkembang pada tahun 1988, Jarkko Oikarinen seorang berkebangsaan Finlandia menemukan sekaligus memperkenalkan Internet Relay Chat atau lebih dikenal dengan IRC yang memungkinkan dua orang atau lebih pengguna komputer dapat berinteraksi secara langsung dengan pengiriman pesan (Chatting ).[6] Akibatnya, setahun kemudian jumlah komputer yang saling berhubungan melonjak 10 kali lipat.[6] tak kurang dari 100000 komputer membentuk sebuah jaringan.[6] Pertengahan tahun 1990 merupakan tahun yang paling bersejarah, ketika Tim Berners Lee merancang sebuah programe penyunting dan penjelajah yang dapat menjelajai komputer yang satu dengan yang lainnya dengan membentuk jaringan.[6] Programe inilah yang disebut Waring Wera Wanua atau World Wide Web.[6]
Komputer yang saling tersambung membentuk jaringan sudah melampaui sejuta komputer pada tahun 1992.[5] Dan pada tahun yang sama muncul istilah surfing (menjelajah).[5] Dan pada tahun 1994, situs-situs di internet telah tumbuh menjadi 3000 alamat halaman, dan untuk pertama kalinya berbelanja melalui internet atau virtual-shopping atau e-retail muncul di situs.[5] Pada tahun yang sama Yahoo! didirikan, yang juga sekaligus tahun kelahiran Netscape Navigator 1.0.[5]
Diposting oleh di 03.25 0 komentar

Kamis, 22 Maret 2012

Fans manchester united

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Manchester United
The words "Manchester" and "United" surround a pennant featuring a ship in full sail and a devil holding a trident.
Full name Manchester United Football Club
Nickname(s) The Red Devils[1]
Founded 1878, as Newton Heath LYR F.C.
Ground Old Trafford
(Capacity: 75,811[2])
Owner Glazer family
Co-chairmen Joel and Avram Glazer
Manager Sir Alex Ferguson
League Premier League
2010–11 Premier League, 1st
Website Club home page

A red shirt with a white-and-black striped collar. White shorts. Black socks with red, white and black-striped tops.
Home colours
A blue and black stripe shirt with blue and black stripe shoulders and a blue and black stripe pattern on both sleeves. Black shorts. Blue socks with black tops.
Away colours
A white shirt with black shoulders and a red pattern on both sleeves. Black shorts with a white stripe on either side. White socks with black tops and red trim.
Third colours
Current season
Manchester United Football Club is an English professional football club, based in Old Trafford, Greater Manchester, that plays in the Premier League. Founded as Newton Heath LYR Football Club in 1878, the club changed its name to Manchester United in 1902 and moved to Old Trafford in 1910.
The 1958 Munich air disaster claimed the lives of eight players. In 1968, under the management of Matt Busby, Manchester United was the first English football club to win the European Cup. The current manager, Sir Alex Ferguson, has won 37 major honours since he took over in November 1986.[3][4]
Manchester United has won many trophies in English football, including a record 19 league titles, a record 11 FA Cups,[5] four League Cups and a record 19 FA Community Shields. The club has also won three European Cups, one UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, one UEFA Super Cup, one Intercontinental Cup and one FIFA Club World Cup. In 1998–99, the club won a "Treble" of the Premier League, the FA Cup and the UEFA Champions League, an unprecedented feat for an English club.
Manchester United is one of the wealthiest and most widely supported football teams in the world.[6][7][8][9] As of July 2011, the club is number one in Forbes magazine's annual ranking of the world's 50 most valuable sports teams, valued at $1.86 billion.[10] After being floated on the London Stock Exchange in 1991, the club was purchased by Malcolm Glazer in May 2005 in a deal valuing the club at almost £800 million.[11]

Contents

 [hide] 

History

Early years (1878–1945)

Main article: History of Manchester United F.C. (1878–1945)
refer to caption
A chart showing the progress of Manchester United F.C. through the English football league system from joining as Newton Heath in 1892–93 to 2007–08
Manchester United was formed in 1878 as Newton Heath LYR Football Club by the Carriage and Wagon department of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway depot at Newton Heath.[12] The team initially played games against other departments and rail companies, but on 20 November 1880, they competed in their first recorded match; wearing the colours of the railway company – green and gold – they were defeated 6–0 by Bolton Wanderers' reserve team.[13] By 1888, the club had become a founding member of The Combination, a regional football league. Following the league's dissolution after only one season, Newton Heath joined the newly formed Football Alliance, which ran for three seasons before being merged with the Football League. This resulted in the club starting the 1892–93 season in the First Division, by which time it had become independent of the rail company and dropped the "LYR" from its name.[12] After two seasons, the club was relegated to the Second Division.[12]
A black-and-white photograph of a football team lining up before a match. Four players, wearing dark shirts, light shorts and dark socks, are seated. Four more players are standing immediately behind them, and three more are standing on a higher level on the back row. Two men in suits are standing on either side of the players.
The Manchester United team at the start of the 1905–06 season, in which they were runners-up in the Second Division
In January 1902, with debts of £2,670 – equivalent to £210,000 as of 2012[nb 1] – the club was served with a winding-up order.[14] Captain Harry Stafford found four local businessmen, including John Henry Davies (who became club president), each willing to invest £500 in return for a direct interest in running the club and who subsequently changed the name;[15] on 24 April 1902, Manchester United was officially born.[16][nb 2] Under Ernest Mangnall, who assumed managerial duties in 1903, the team finished as Second Division runners-up in 1906 and secured promotion to the First Division, which they won in 1908 – the club's first league title. The following season began with victory in the first ever Charity Shield[17] and ended with the club's first FA Cup title. Manchester United won the First Division for the second time in 1911, but at the end of the following season, Mangnall left the club to join Manchester City.[18]
In 1922, three years after the resumption of football following the First World War, the club was relegated to the Second Division, where it remained until regaining promotion in 1925. Relegated again in 1931, Manchester United became a yo-yo club, achieving its all-time lowest position of 20th place in the Second Division in 1934. Following the death of the club's principal benefactor, J. H. Davies, in October 1927, the club's finances deteriorated to the extent that Manchester United would likely have gone bankrupt had it not been for James W. Gibson, who, in December 1931, invested £2,000 and assumed control of the club.[19] In the 1938–39 season, the last year of football before the Second World War, the club finished 14th in the First Division.[19]

Busby years (1945–1969)

Main article: History of Manchester United F.C. (1945–1969)
A black-and-white photograph of several people in suits and overcoats on the steps of an aircraft.
The Busby Babes in Denmark in 1955
In October 1945, the impending resumption of football led to the managerial appointment of Matt Busby, who demanded an unprecedented level of control over team selection, player transfers and training sessions.[20] Busby led the team to second-place league finishes in 1947, 1948 and 1949, and to FA Cup victory in 1948. In 1952, the club won the First Division, its first league title for 41 years.[21] With an average age of 22, the media labelled the back-to-back title winning side of 1956 "the Busby Babes", a testament to Busby's faith in his youth players.[22] In 1957, Manchester United became the first English team to compete in the European Cup, despite objections from The Football League, who had denied Chelsea the same opportunity the previous season.[23] En route to the semi-final, which they lost to Real Madrid, the team recorded a 10–0 victory over Belgian champions Anderlecht, which remains the club's biggest victory on record.[24]
A stone tablet, inscribed with the image of a football pitch and several names. It is surrounded by a stone border in the shape of a football stadium. Above the tablet is a wooden carving of two men holding a large wreath.
A plaque at Old Trafford in memory of those who died in the Munich air disaster, including players names
The following season, on the way home from a European Cup quarter-final victory against Red Star Belgrade, the aircraft carrying the Manchester United players, officials and journalists crashed while attempting to take off after refuelling in Munich, Germany. The Munich air disaster of 6 February 1958 claimed 23 lives, including those of eight players – Geoff Bent, Roger Byrne, Eddie Colman, Duncan Edwards, Mark Jones, David Pegg, Tommy Taylor and Billy Whelan – and injured several more.[25][26]
Reserve team manager Jimmy Murphy took over as manager while Busby recovered from his injuries and the club's makeshift side reached the FA Cup final, which they lost to Bolton Wanderers. In recognition of the team's tragedy, UEFA invited the club to compete in the 1958–59 European Cup alongside eventual League champions Wolverhampton Wanderers. Despite approval from the FA, the Football League determined that the club should not enter the competition, since it had not qualified.[27][28] Busby rebuilt the team through the 1960s by signing players such as Denis Law and Pat Crerand, who combined with the next generation of youth players – including George Best – to win the FA Cup in 1963. The following season, they finished second in the league, then won the title in 1965 and 1967. In 1968, Manchester United became the first English (and second British) club to win the European Cup, beating Benfica 4–1 in the final[29] with a team that contained three European Footballers of the Year: Bobby Charlton, Denis Law and George Best.[30] Matt Busby resigned as manager in 1969 and was replaced by the reserve team coach, former Manchester United player Wilf McGuinness.[31]

1969–1986

Main article: History of Manchester United F.C. (1969–1986)
A smiling man with dark hair wearing a white, green and blue tracksuit top over a blue shirt. He is holding a washbag under his right arm.
Bryan Robson was the captain of Manchester United for 12 years, longer than any other player.[32]
Following an eighth-place finish in the 1969–70 season and a poor start to the 1970–71 season, Busby was persuaded to temporarily resume managerial duties, and McGuinness returned to his position as reserve team coach. In June 1971, Frank O'Farrell was appointed as manager, but lasted less than 18 months before being replaced by Tommy Docherty in December 1972.[33] Docherty saved Manchester United from relegation that season, only to see them relegated in 1974; by that time the trio of Best, Law, and Charlton had left the club.[29] The team won promotion at the first attempt and reached the FA Cup final in 1976, but were beaten by Southampton. They reached the final again in 1977, beating Liverpool 2–1. Docherty was dismissed shortly afterwards, following the revelation of his affair with the club physiotherapist's wife.[31][34]
Dave Sexton replaced Docherty as manager in the summer of 1977. Despite major signings, including Joe Jordan, Gordon McQueen, Gary Bailey, and Ray Wilkins, the team failed to achieve any significant results; they finished in the top two in 1979–80 and lost to Arsenal in the 1979 FA Cup Final. Sexton was dismissed in 1981, even though the team won the last seven games under his direction.[35] He was replaced by Ron Atkinson, who immediately broke the British record transfer fee to sign Bryan Robson from West Bromwich Albion. Under Atkinson, Manchester United won the FA Cup twice in three years – in 1983 and 1985. In 1985–86, after 13 wins and two draws in its first 15 matches, the club was favourite to win the league, but finished in fourth place. The following season, with the club in danger of relegation by November, Atkinson was dismissed.[36]

Ferguson years (1986–present)

Main article: History of Manchester United F.C. (1986–present)
The torso and head of a grey-haired white man. He is wearing spectacles and a black coat.
Alex Ferguson has been manager of Manchester United since November 1986.
Alex Ferguson and his assistant Archie Knox arrived from Aberdeen on the day of Atkinson's dismissal,[37] and guided the club to an 11th-place finish in the league.[38] Despite a second-place finish in 1987–88, the club was back in 11th place the following season.[39] Reportedly on the verge of being dismissed, victory over Crystal Palace in the 1990 FA Cup Final replay (after a 3–3 draw) saved Ferguson's career.[40][41] The following season, Manchester United claimed its first Cup Winners' Cup title and competed in the 1991 UEFA Super Cup, beating European Cup holders Red Star Belgrade 1–0 in the final at Old Trafford. A second consecutive League Cup final appearance followed in 1992, in which the team beat Nottingham Forest 1–0 at Wembley.[36] In 1993, the club won its first league title since 1967, and a year later, for the first time since 1957, it won a second consecutive title – alongside the FA Cup – to complete the first "Double" in the club's history.[36]
A white football player with short, dark, greying hair. He is wearing a red shirt, white shorts, white socks and white football boots. He is running and has puffed-out cheeks.
Ryan Giggs is the most decorated player in English football history.[42]
In the 1998–99 season, Manchester United became the first team to win the Premier League, FA Cup and UEFA Champions League – "The Treble" – in the same season.[43] Losing 1–0 going into injury time in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final, Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored late goals to claim a dramatic victory over Bayern Munich, in what is considered one of the greatest comebacks of all time.[44] The club also won the Intercontinental Cup after beating Palmeiras 1–0 in Tokyo.[45] Ferguson was subsequently knighted for his services to football.[46]
Manchester United won the league again in the 1999–2000 and 2000–01 seasons. The team finished as runners-up in 2001–02, before regaining the title in 2002–03. They won the 2003–04 FA Cup, beating Millwall 3–0 in the final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff.[47] In the 2005–06 season, Manchester United failed to qualify for the knockout phase of the UEFA Champions League for the first time in over a decade, but recovered to secure a second-place league finish and victory over Wigan Athletic in the 2006 Football League Cup Final. The club regained the Premier League in the 2006–07 and 2007–08 seasons, and completed the European double by beating Chelsea 6–5 on penalties in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final in Moscow's Luzhniki Stadium. Ryan Giggs made a record 759th appearance for the club in this game, overtaking previous record holder Bobby Charlton.[48] In December 2008, the club won the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup and followed this with the 2008–09 Football League Cup, and its third successive Premier League title.[49][50] That summer, Cristiano Ronaldo was sold to Real Madrid for a world record £80 million.[51] In 2010, Manchester United defeated Aston Villa 2–1 at Wembley to retain the League Cup, its first successful defence of a knockout cup competition.[52]
After finishing as runner-up to Chelsea in the 2009–10 season, United achieved a record 19th league title in 2010–11, securing the championship with a 1–1 away draw against Blackburn Rovers on 14 May 2011.[53]
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